“CLEAN Algorithm”的概念、定义、习题解题方法及翻译-数学辞典

单词 CLEAN Algorithm

释义

CLEAN Algorithm

An iterative algorithm which Deconvolves a sampling function (the ``Dirty Beam'') from anobserved brightness (``Dirty Map'') of a radio source. This algorithm is of fundamental importance in radioastronomy, where it is used to create images of astronomical sources which are observed using arrays of radio telescopes(``synthesis imaging ''). As a result of the algorithm's importance to synthesis imaging , a great deal of effort has gone into optimizing and adjusting the Algorithm.CLEAN is a nonlinear algorithm, since linear Deconvolution algorithms such as Wiener Filtering and inverse filtering are inapplicable to applications with invisible distributions (i.e., incomplete sampling of thespatial frequency plane) such as maps obtained in synthesis imaging .

The basic CLEAN method was developed by Högbom (1974). It was originally designed for point sources, but it has beenfound to work well for extended sources as well when given a reasonable starting model. The Högbom CLEAN constructsdiscrete approximations to the CLEAN Map in the plane from the Convolution equation

(1)

where

is the Dirty Beam,

is the Dirty Map (both in the

Plane), and

denotes a Convolution.

The CLEAN algorithm starts with an initial approximation . At the th iteration, it then searches for the largestvalue in the residual map

(2)

A Delta Function is then centered at the location of the largest residual flux and given an amplitude

(theso-called ``Loop Gain'') times this value. An antenna's response to the Delta Function, the Dirty Beam,is then subtracted from

to yield

. Iteration continues until a specified iteration limit

is reached, oruntil the peak residual or Root-Mean-Square residual decreases to some level. The resulting final map is denoted

, and the position of each Delta Function is saved in a ``CLEAN component'' table in the CLEAN Map file. At the point where component subtraction is stopped, it is assumed that the residual brightness distribution consists mainlyof Noise.

To diminish high spatial frequency features which may be spuriously extrapolated from the measured data, each CLEAN componentis convolved with the so-called CLEAN Beam , which is simply a suitably smoothed version of the sampling function(``Dirty Beam''). Usually, a Gaussian is used. A good CLEAN Beam should:

: 1. Have a unity Fourier Transform inside the sampled region of space,
: 2. Have a Fourier Transform which tends to 0 outside the sampled region as quickly as possible, and
: 3. Not have any effects produced by Negative sidelobes larger than the Noise level.

A CLEAN Map is produced when the final residual map is added to the approximate solution,

(3)

in order to include the Noise.

CLEAN will always converge to one (of possibly many) solutions if the following three conditions are satisfied (Schwarz1978):

: 1. The beam must be symmetric.
: 2. The Fourier Transform of the Dirty Beam is Nonnegative (positive definite or positive semidefinite).
: 3. There must be no spatial frequencies present in the dirty image which are not also present in the Dirty Beam.

These conditions are almost always satisfied in practice. If the number of CLEAN components does not exceed the number ofindependent points, CLEAN converges to a solution which is the least squares fit of the FourierTransforms of the Delta Function components to the measured visibility (Thompson et al. 1986,p. 347). Schwarz claims that the CLEAN algorithm is equivalent to a least squares fitting of cosine and sine parts in the plane of the visibility data. Schwab has produced a Noise analysis of the CLEAN algorithm in the case ofleast squares minimization of a noiseless image which involves an Matrix. However, no Noiseanalysis has been performed for a real image.

Poor modulation of short spacings results in an underestimation of the flux, which is manifested in a bowl of negativesurface brightness surrounding an object. Providing an estimate of the ``zero spacing'' flux (the total flux of the source,which cannot be directly measured by an interferometer) can considerably reduce thiseffect. Modulations or stripes can occur at spatial frequencies corresponding to undersampled parts of the plane.This can result in a golf ball-like mottling for disk sources such as planets, or a corrugated pattern of parallel lines ofpeaks and troughs (``stripes''). A more accurate model can be used to suppress the ``golf ball'' modulations, but may noteliminate the corrugations. A tapering function which de-emphasizes data near can also be used. Stripescan sometimes be eliminated using the Cornwell smoothness-stabilized CLEAN (a.k.a. Prussian helmet algorithm; Thompson et al. 1986). CLEANing part way, then restarting the CLEAN also seems to eliminate the stripes, although this fact is moredisturbing than reassuring. Stability the CLEAN algorithm is discussed by Tan (1986).

In order to CLEAN a map of a given dimension, it is necessary to have a beam pattern twice as large so a point source canbe subtracted from any point in the map. Because the CLEAN algorithm uses a Fast Fourier Transform, the size mustalso be a Power of 2.

There are many variants of the basic Högbom CLEAN which extend the method to achieve greater speed and produce morerealistic maps. Alternate nonlinear Deconvolution methods, such as the Maximum Entropy Method, may also be used, but aregenerally slower than the CLEAN technique. The Astronomical Image Processing Software (AIPS) of the National RadioAstronomical Observatory includes 2-D Deconvolution algorithms in the tasks DCONV and UVMAP. Among thevariants of the basic Högbom CLEAN are Clark, Cornwell smoothness stabilized (Prussian helmet), Cotton-Schwab,Gerchberg-Saxton (Fienup), Steer, Steer-Dewdney-Ito, and van Cittert iteration.

In the Clark (1980) modification, CLEAN picks out only the largest residual points, and subtracts approximate point sourceresponses in the plane during minor (Högbom CLEAN) cycles. It only occasionally (during major cycles)computes the full residual map by subtracting the identified point source responses in the plane using aFast Fourier Transform for the Convolution. The Algorithm then returns to a minor cycle. Thisalgorithm modifies the Högbom method to take advantage of the array processor (although it also works without one). Itis therefore a factor of 2-10 faster than the simple Högbom routine. It is implemented as the AIPS task APCLN.

The Cornwell smoothness stabilized variant was developed because, when dealing with two-dimensional extended structures,CLEAN can produce artifacts in the form of low-level high frequency stripes running through the brighter structure. Thesestripes derive from poor interpolations into unsampled or poorly sampled regions of the plane. When dealing withquasi-one-dimensional sources (i.e., jets), the artifacts resemble knots (which may not be so readily recognized as spurious).APCLN can invoke a modification of CLEAN that is intended to bias it toward generating smoother solutions to thedeconvolution problem while preserving the requirement that the transform of the CLEAN components list fits the data. Themechanism for introducing this bias is the addition to the Dirty Beam of a Delta Function (or ``spike'') ofsmall amplitude (PHAT) while searching for the CLEAN components. The beam used for the deconvolutionresembles the helmet worn by German military officers in World War I, hence the name ``Prussian helmet'' CLEAN.

The theory underlying the Cornwell smoothness stabilized algorithm is given by Cornwell (1982, 1983), where it is describedas the smoothness stabilized CLEAN. It is implemented in the AIPS tasks APCLN and MX. The spike performs aNegative feedback into the dirty image, thus suppressing features not required by the data. Spike heights of a fewpercent and lower than usual loop gains are usually needed. Also according to the MX documentation,

Unfortunately, the addition of a Prussian helmet generally has ``limited success,'' so resorting to another deconvolutionmethod such as the Maximum Entropy Method is sometimes required.

The Cotton-Schwab uses the Clark method, but the major cycle subtractions of CLEAN components are performed on ungriddedvisibility data. The Cotton-Schwab technique is often faster than the Clark variant. It is also capable ofincluding the baseline term, thus removing distortions from noncoplanar baselines. It is often faster than the Clarkmethod. The Cotton-Schwab technique is implemented as the AIPS task MX.

The Gerchberg-Saxton variant, also called the Fienup variant, is a technique originally introduced for solving the phaseproblem in electron microscopy. It was subsequently adapted for visibility amplitude measurements only. AGerchberg-Saxton map is constrained to be Nonzero, and positive. Data and image plane constraints are imposed alternatelywhile transforming to and from the image plane. If the boxes to CLEAN are chosen to surround the source snugly, then thealgorithm will converge faster and will have more chance of finding a unique image. The algorithm is slow, but should becomparable to the Clark technique (APCLN) if the map contains many picture elements. However, the resolution is datadependent and varies across the map. It is implemented as the AIPS task APGS (Pearson 1984).

The Steer variant is a modification of the Clark variant (Cornwell 1982). It is slow, but should becomparable to the Clark algorithm if the map contains many picture elements. The algorithm used in the program is due toDavid Steer. The principle is similar to Barry Clark's CLEAN except that in the minor cycle only points above the (trimlevel)(peak in the residual map) are selected. In the major cycle these are removed using a Fast FourierTransform. If boxes are chosen to surround the source snugly, then the algorithm will converge faster and will have morechance of finding a unique image. It is implemented in AIPS as the experimental program STEER and as the Steer-Dewdney-Itovariant combined with the Clark algorithm as SDCLN.

The Steer-Dewdney-Ito variant is similar to the Clark variant, but the components are taken as all pixels having residualflux greater than a cutoff value times the current peak residual. This method should avoid the ``ripples'' produced by the standardCLEAN on extended emission. The AIPS task SDCLN does an AP-based CLEAN of the Clark type, but differs from APCLN in that it offers the option to switch to the Steer-Dewdney-Ito method.

Finally, van Cittert iteration consists of two steps:

: 1. Estimate a correction to add to the current map estimate by multiplying the residuals by some weight. In theclassical van Cittert algorithm, this weight is a constant, where as in CLEAN the weight is zero everywhere except at thepeak of the residuals.
: 2. Add the step to the current estimate, and subtract the estimate, convolved with the Dirty Beam, from the residuals.

Though it is a simple algorithm, it works well (if slowly) for cases where the Dirty Beam is positive semidefinite (asit is in astronomical observations). The basic idea is that the Dirty Map is a reasonably good estimate of thedeconvolved map. The different iterations vary only in the weight to apply to each residual in determining the correctionstep. van Cittert iteration is implemented as the AIPS task APVC, which is a rather experimental and ad hoc procedure.In some limiting cases, it reduces to the standard CLEAN algorithm (though it would be impractically slow).

See also CLEAN Beam, CLEAN Map, Dirty Beam, Dirty Map

References

Christiansen, W. N. and Högbom, J. A. Radiotelescopes, 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 214-216, 1985.

Clark, B. G. ``An Efficient Implementation of the Algorithm `CLEAN'.'' Astron. Astrophys. 89, 377-378, 1980.

Cornwell, T. J. ``Can CLEAN be Improved?'' VLA Scientific Memorandum No. 141, 1982.

Cornwell, T. J. ``Image Restoration (and the CLEAN Technique).'' Lecture 9. NRAO VLA Workshop on Synthesis Mapping, p. 113, 1982.

Cornwell, T. J. ``A Method of Stabilizing the CLEAN Algorithm.'' Astron. Astrophys. 121, 281-285, 1983.

Cornwell, T. and Braun, R. ``Deconvolution.'' Ch. 8 in Synthesis Imaging in Radio Astronomy: Third NRAO Summer School, 1988 (Ed. R. A. Perley, F. R. Schwab, and A. H. Bridle). San Francisco, CA: Astronomical Society of the Pacific, pp. 178-179, 1989.

Högbom, J. A. ``Aperture Synthesis with a Non-Regular Distribution of Interferometric Baselines.'' Astron. Astrophys. Supp. 15, 417-426, 1974.

National Radio Astronomical Observatory. Astronomical Image Processing Software (AIPS) software package. APCLN, MX, and UVMAP tasks.

Pearson, T. J. and Readhead, A. C. S. ``Image Formation by Self-Calibration in Radio Astronomy.'' Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 22, 97-130, 1984.

Schwarz, U. J. ``Mathematical-Statistical Description of the Iterative Beam Removing Technique (Method CLEAN).'' Astron. Astrophys. 65, 345-356, 1978.

Tan, S. M. ``An Analysis of the Properties of CLEAN and Smoothness Stabilized CLEAN--Some Warnings.'' Mon. Not. Royal Astron. Soc. 220, 971-1001, 1986.

Thompson, A. R.; Moran, J. M.; and Swenson, G. W. Jr. Interferometry and Synthesis in Radio Astronomy. New York: Wiley, p. 348, 1986.

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